ABSTRACT
THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2022, vol.33)

Vol.33No.1

◆Takaseki, Hitomi (Graduate School of Education, Tokyo University). Qualitative Study on Anger Control Strategies: Cognitive Process of Mothers with Children with Developmental Disabilities. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.1, 1–11.

This study aims to examine anger control strategies by exploring the cognitive process of anger control among mothers with children with developmental disabilities. A semi-structured interview was conducted with 23 mothers of children with developmental disabilities aged 4 to 10 years, who are placed in a youth nursing home. Interview data were analyzed based on the qualitative grounded theory approach. The result revealed that the mothers were primarily using two strategies, namely, (a) focusing on the reason underlying the child's behavior and (b) being aware of the present moment to effectively control anger . Therefore, the mothers effectively controlled anger using these focus-shifting strategies. In addition, the result suggests that engagement in parent–child interaction can be improved by undergoing these intentional cognitive processes.

yKeywordszCognitive emotion regulation, Anger, Parental support for children with developmental disabilities, Grounded theory approach


◆Fuji, Shohei (Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science) & Sugimura, Shinichiro (Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University). Characteristics of Self-Regulation in Pretend Play: A Preliminary Comparison of Different Types of Play. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.1, 12–24.

Pretend play benefits child development in various way one of which is self-regulation. Previous studies have examined the relationship between pretend play, specifically role play, and self-regulation of both inside and outside pretend play. However, no study has identified the differentiating characteristics of self-regulation in pretend play. In this study, role play as well as other types play of were observed among 32 four- to six-year-olds so as to compare self-regulatory behavior in role play and constructive and functional play from three perspectives: cognitive/emotional; planning, monitoring, control, and evaluation; and self-regulation, other-regulation, and shared-regulation. The results revealed that planning behavior in role play was significantly more frequent when compared to constructive and functional play. With regard to the other categories, no significant differences were found between role play and the other types of paly. These finding suggest that although children exhibit planning behavior more in role play than in constructive and functional play, they also demonstrate other categories of self-regulation in types of play besides role play.
yKeywordsz Pretend play, Self-regulation, Metacognition, Observation, Early childhood education


◆Oshima, Kiyomi (College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Ibaraki University), Suzuki, Kana (Faculty of Health and Wellness Sciences, Hiroshima International University) & Nishimura, Takashi (Faculty of Health and Wellness Sciences, Hiroshima International University). The Process of Becoming a Parent Team: A Qualitative Research on Couples with a Preschooler. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.1, 25–39.

This paper examines correlations between understanding autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and self-positiveness in typically developing (TD) individuals. Study 1 applied the literacy scale of ASD characteristics and self-positiveness scale to TD individuals (N＝189). We deduced that TD individuals with a high awareness of ASD-related communication difficulties evaluated themselves as more sensitive regarding their relationship with others. We have discussed whether TD individuals positively or negatively assessed themselves as having proactive or closed attitudes about relationships with others by considering their personality factors. Study 2 examined changes in correlations between understanding ASD and self-positiveness in TD high school students (N＝9), who participated in psycho-dramatic role-playing group work together with ASD individuals for approximately one year. Consequently, changes were indicted in the TD participants' self-affirmation subdomains that correlated with ASD-understanding subdomains. Concretely, TD participants came to understand ASD-related communication difficulties from environmental and individual perspectives. The background of these changes is discussed by considering participants' behaviors and remarks during group work.
yKeywordszAutism spectrum disorder, understanding disorders, self-positiveness, group work


◆Nakajima, Takahiro (School of Contemporary Sociology, Chukyo University), Ito, Hiroyuki (Human Science Division, Faculty of Core Research, Ochanomizu University), Murayama, Yasuo (College of Human and Social Sciences, Kanazawa University), Myogan, Mitsunori (School of Psychology, Chukyo University), Takayanagi, Nobuya (Department of Human Health, Aichi Toho University), Hamada, Megumi (School of Human Care Studies, Nagoya University of Arts and Science) & Tsujii, Masatsugu (School of Contemporary Sociology, Chukyo University). The Association Between Autistic Traits, Psychosocial Maladjustment, and Motor Abilities in Elementary and Junior High School Students. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.1, 40–50.

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) traits and psychosocial maladjustment related to friendships and depression, mediated by motor abilities, among elementary and junior high school students. The participants comprised 5,084 general elementary and junior high school students and their parents. Path analysis revealed that the more ASD traits the participants suffered, the more motor ability difficulties they experienced. In addition, 26% of the association between ASD traits and depression in elementary school, and 25% and 16% of the association between ASD traits and friendship problems in elementary and junior high school, respectively were indirect effects mediated by motor abilities. No significant difference in the effect of gender and grade on these associations was found. One may deduce that motor abilities make a significant contribution to psychosocial maladjustment regardless of grade and gender.
yKeywordsz Autism spectrum disorder traits, motor abilities, elementary and junior high school students, psychosocial maladjustment


Vol.33No.2

◆Okubo, Keisuke (The Center for Early Childhood Development, Education, and Policy Research, The University of Tokyo), Tang, Yinqi (Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo), Endo, Toshihiko (Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo) & Nozawa, Sachiko (The Center for Early Childhood Development, Education, and Policy Research, The University of Tokyo). Association between the Degree of Marital Communication during Pregnancy and Gatekeeping during Parenthood: An Examination of Different Combinations of Employment Status. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.2, 55–64.

This study determined the longitudinal effects of marital communication during pregnancy on fathers' perceived gatekeeping/gate-opening behaviors from mothers during parenthood. A total of 1357 married couples were analyzed using data obtained at two-time points when the children were zero and three years old. The degree of communication during pregnancy was retrospectively rated by mothers when the child was age zero, and gatekeeping/gate-opening was retrospectively rated by fathers when the child was three. The results showed that the association between the degree of communication during pregnancy and gate-opening was significant for all combinations of employment status. In contrast, the association with gatekeeping was significant only for couples who were full-time employees. Also, the amount of variance explained by the degree of discussion during pregnancy was approximately 10%. This study suggest that it is important for couples to discuss childcare before childbirth, especially for those who plan to work full-time after childbirth.

yKeywordsz Gatekeeping, Gate-opening, Prenatal marital relationship, Dyad data


◆Mizoe, Yui (Doctoral Course The United Graduate School of Education Tokyo Gakugei University) & Otomo, Kiyoshi (Support Center of Special Needs Education and Clinical Practice on Education). Development of Symbolic Play in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Children with Typical Development: A Longitudinal Investigation on the Repertoire and Sequential Organization of Play. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.2, 65–75.

The play behaviors of 10 Japanese boys with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and without intellectual disability or language delay and 10 children with typical development (TD) were observed across three sessions with intervals of approximately six months beginning at age 2;6 to 3;6. The study obtained three indices, namely, (a) frequency and repertoire of symbolic play, (b) frequency and repertoire of play themes, and (c) sequential organization of play. Analyses using a generalized linear mixed model with chronological age (CA) as a covariate displayed significant interactions between CA and the group for the repertoire of symbolic play and sequential organization of play. The repertoire of symbolic play and sequential organization of play were found to remain constant with the increase in the age of children with ASD, whereas these indices increased with the increase in age of children with TD. The results demonstrated that children with ASD and without intellectual disability or language delay gradually exhibited qualitative differences from children with TD in terms of symbolic play behaviors.

yKeywordsz Symbolic play, Sequential organization of play, Repertoire of play, Autism spectrum disorder, Longitudinal study


◆Sasaki, Mie (Faculty of Welfare, Fukushima College), Kobayashi, Kiyo (Master's Course, Division of Clinical Psychology, Graduate School of Clinical Psychology, Fukushima College), Ichikawa, Yoko (Ichikawa Clinic), Ando, Satoko (Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba) & Kayama, Yukihiko (Faculty of Welfare, Fukushima College). The Mental Health of Mothers with Young Children Facing Earthquake and Radiation Hazards: A Survey Conducted after Three Years of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Disaster. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.2, 76–88.

This study clarified the factors associated with the mental health of mothers in the Fukushima Prefecture who had young children, three years after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster. Based on the sample of 346 mothers, the hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the association between the perceived differences in the perceptions and responses to radiation problems with people around the mothers and the maternal autonomous judgments of such problems were significant. A simple slopes analysis also indicated that in the cases of both high and low autonomous judgments, the perceived differences had a significant positive effect on maternal depression. However, the slope for high autonomous judgment was smaller than that for low autonomous judgment. Additionally, concerns about their children's health had an almost significant positive effect on maternal depression. These findings indicate that maternal health concerns need to be considered a risk factor and that maternal autonomous judgment has a moderating effect on the association between the perceived differences with people around mothers and their levels of depression.

yKeywordsz The Great East Japan Earthquake, House damage, Health concerns, Perceived differences, Autonomous judgment


◆Ishikawa, Keita (Graduate School of Education, University of Tokyo), Azuma, Natsuko (Graduate School of Education, University of Tokyo), Ohka, Mai (Graduate School of Education, University of Tokyo) & Takizawa, Ryu (Graduate School of Education, University of Tokyo, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London). Intergenerational Effect of Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences on the Next Generation's Psychopathology: A Literature Review. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.2, 89–103.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have a long-term impact on mental health, but the consequences of parental ACEs on the next generation's psychopathology have not been fully understood. This literature review examined the relationship between parental ACEs and child psychopathology as well as the impact of pregnancy and postpartum mediators and moderators on the two variables, in light of varied study findings on the intergenerational transmission of parents' abuse experiences in childhood. Sixteen studies were included from a literature search conducted through six search engines. The association between the two variables was consistent and significant for behavior and externalizing problems but inconsistent for internalizing problems. Comparison of the present study with similar studies showed no major differences. Biological and psychosocial factors during pregnancy as well as psychological problems and parenting after childbirth were the main mediators and moderators identified. Comprehensive investigations of adversities in polyvictimization and examinations of the mediating and moderating factors are warranted both during pregnancy and after childbirth.

yKeywordsz Adverse childhood experiences, Intergenerational transmission, Psychopathology, Literature review


Vol.33No.3

◆Hiroto, Kengo (Graduate School of Education, Tokyo University, Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science). Developing the Adjustment Process of Prosocial Behavior: Naturalistic Observation Research for Preschoolers. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.3, 112–122.

This study purposed to examine prosocial behavior adjustment methods employed by preschoolers to modify their responses to the reactions of recipients. Previous studies have focused solely on whether children can perform prosocial behaviors as required. However, children must modify their prosocial behaviors to suit their purposes if their conduct does not benefit the receiver or is unaccepted. This naturalistic observation study monitored the prosocial behaviors of three- and five-year-old children and obtained three substantial findings. First, three-year-old children exhibited more negative reactions as receivers than five-year-old preschoolers, whose reactions were more amenable. Second, the four-criteria standpoint applied to detect the appropriateness of prosocial behavior revealed that children aged five evinced more apposite prosocial behaviors than three-year-old toddlers. Finally, preschoolers aged five shifted to more apt prosocial behaviors than three-year-old children if they received a negative reaction. Furthermore, these pioneering findings demonstrate that preschool children experience developmental changes in adjusting their prosocial behaviors.

yKeywordszProsocial behavior, Adjustment process, Naturalistic observation, Preschoolers


◆Ogawa, Shota (Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Chukyo University). Effects of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes toward People with Disabilities on Friendship with Disabled College Students: Mixed-methods Analysis. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.3, 123–136.

This mixed-methods study examined how the attitudes of nondisabled college students toward people with physical disabilities affect their friendships with disabled peers. In Phase 1, the explicit and implicit attitudes of nondisabled students were measured quantitatively, and the contact hypothesis was tested. Less prejudice, both implicit and explicit, was shown toward a group including a physically disabled friend (n18) than one without (n63), thereby supporting the hypothesis. The qualitative phase, Phase 2, involved group interviews with nondisabled students (n15) and their disabled peers (n3) to explore their interactions. The participants reported that despite disabled and nondisabled students providing mutual social support, anxiety and conflict did arise in such relationships. In Phase 3, the data were integrated to show that that nondisabled students who strongly prescribe to the stereotype “disabled people have low abilities” provided excessive support to their disabled peers, often leading to conflict and dissatisfaction on both sides. The study further considered how reciprocal support maintains friendships between disabled and nondisabled students in inclusive education.

yKeywordszInclusive education, Implicit association test, Implicit attitudes, Cross-group friendships


◆Matsuba, Yurika (Graduate School of Human Sciences, Waseda University), Lee, Steve K (Graduate School of Human Sciences, Waseda University), Haraguchi, Miyuki (Graduate School of Human Sciences, Waseda University), Iwasaki, Minako (Research Institute for Children's Social Care, Waseda University), Ohtsuki, Tomu (Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University) & Katsuragawa, Taisuke (Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University). The Development of the Japanese Version of the Mentalization Scale and the Examination of its Reliability and Validity. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.3, 137–145.

This study developed the Japanese version of the Mentalization Scale (MentS-J) and tested its reliability and validity. We translated the original MentS-J into Japanese with the permission of its author and surveyed 352 university students. Confirmatory factor analysis of indices supported the hypothesized three-factor structure of the scale: mentalization of self, mentalization of others, and motivation to mentalize. Reliability testing confirmed the instrument's internal and retest consistency. A correlation analysis performed with a scale measuring similar constructs confirmed criterion-related validity. Partial correlation analysis to test construct validity revealed significant negative correlations between the MentS-J and the Borderline Personality Traits Scale as well as the Japanese version of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient-10 (AQ-J-10). The results established the acceptable reliability and validity of the MentS-J and indicated its potential usefulness as an instrument for the assessment of mentalization.

yKeywordszMentalization, Borderline personality disorder, Autism spectrum disorder


◆Kuhara, Eriko (National Research Institute of Police Science), Miyadera, Takayuki (National Research Institute of Police Science) & Fujiwara, Yuki (National Research Institute of Police Science). Effects of Cognitive Functions in Preschoolers on Suggestibility and Confabulation in Memory. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.3, 146–157.

This study explored the effects of cognitive functions in preschoolers on suggestibility and confabulation in memory (distortion and fabrication). Sixty-five preschool girls (aged 5–6 years) completed the Bonn Test of Statement Suggestibility and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-fourth edition (WISC-IV). The analyses revealed the following results. Misleading forced-choice questions were negatively related to the Verbal Comprehension Index. Misleading yes/no questions (YNQ) and repeated questions (RQ) were not significantly related to any WISC-IV indices but were both significantly associated with age in months. Suggested answers decreased for YNQ and increased for RQ as children became older. Distortion was not significantly related to any WISC-IV indices but fabrication was negatively related to the Working Memory Index. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of these findings on interviewing preschoolers in forensic contexts.

yKeywordszSuggestibility, Confabulation in memory, Intelligence, Working memory, Preschooler


Vol.33No.4

◆Ito, Hiroyuki (Human Science Division, Faculty of Core Research, Ochanomizu University). Role and Methodology of the Longitudinal Approach in Developmental Research: What, Why, and How?. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 176–192.

In this paper, we discuss what longitudinal research is, why it is necessary, and how to conduct it in real developmental-research context. Longitudinal research can be conducted using various research designs, but their common features are that data are collected from the same subject at multiple time points and analyses focus on change over time and relationships within individuals. Longitudinal approaches with these characteristics are beneficial to developmental research because they enable the researcher to (1) separate the effects of age, cohort, and period, (2) quantify trajectories of intraindividual change and how these differ between individuals, and (3) identify clues to causal relationships (especially temporal order). Taking a longitudinal approach increases the complexity of research design and data-analysis methodology. However, this cost is offset by the potential to broaden and deepen developmental research by generating creative research questions of a different kind from those generated by cross-sectional studies.

yKeywordszLongitudinal research, Age-period-cohort analysis, Developmental trajectories, Causal inference


◆Endo, Toshihiko (The University of Tokyo). Developmental Continuity and Changes: Its Aporia from the Perspective of Longitudinal Studies on Human Attachment. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 193–204.

For human lifespan development research to be truly developmental, it is essential that the flow of time in which people live in a prospective manner is examined. Thus, longitudinal research should be enriched in developmental psychology. However, merely collecting longitudinal data does not reveal developmental continuity and changes from infancy to old age. Consequently, an in-depth examination of theories of developmental continuity and changes and use of appropriate methods based on these theories are imperative. In this paper, several long-term longitudinal studies on the lifespan development of human attachment are reviewed. Endeavors have been made to examine the continuity and changes of personal characteristics of attachment throughout life by employing the conceptual device of Internal Working Model. The difficulties of examining developmental continuity and changes, its aporia, and the possibilities and challenges of future longitudinal research are discussed.

yKeywordszDevelopmental continuity and changes, Attachment, Internal working model, Strange situation procedure, Adult attachment interview


◆Takizawa, Ryu (Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London). Long-term Effects of Early Life Stress on Adult Health throughout the Life Course: Scientific Evidence from a United Kingdom Longitudinal Birth-Cohort Study. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 205–211.

A longitudinal cohort study design for health science research is most desirable for a life-course developmental approach. Longitudinal studies have revealed that early life stress may be associated with subsequent negative mental and physical health across individuals' lifespan. The author has provided additional evidence of long-term negative effects of adverse childhood experiences (both in domestic and out-of-home settings), including bullying, on adult health by employing United Kingdom longitudinal birth cohort data. Various studies have elucidated potential malleable protective/compensatory factors for mitigating these long-term negative effects. It is recommended that future research employ cross-cohort and cross-cultural comparisons to verify such findings. Advantages and disadvantages of conducting large-scale longitudinal studies in Japan are discussed.

yKeywordszLongitudinal study, Birth cohort study, Early life stress, Health science research, Bullying


◆Kawai, Masatoshi (Mukogawa Women's University), Namba, Kumiko (Mukogawa Women's University) & Tamai, Kota (Hokkai School of Commerce). How Longitudinal Studies Contribute to Understanding Development: Use as a Data Resource for Heuristic Research. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 212–220.
Developmental research is a dynamic discipline aiming to clarify how and by what mechanisms various functions change over time. Longitudinal studies demonstrate their effectiveness when examining individual differences in interrelationships, including developmental changes. The idea that relationships between elements create developmental changes is also consistent with the recently developed dynamic systems theory. This paper first describes the relevant theoretical viewpoints and then discusses the challenges arising in actual longitudinal research and the potential for using longitudinal data in heuristic research. Finally, given that the current research environment makes longitudinal research unfeasible, we question whether open access could be provided to the data previously accumulated in longitudinal studies.

yKeywordszLongitudinal study, Interrelationships of elements, Dynamic systems, Open access


◆Negayama, Koichi (Waseda University). Adversity Experiences from the Perspective of Longitudinal Studies. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 221–233.

In this study, adversity experiences were examined from the perspective of longitudinal studies. Individuals' experiences of adversity, including early developmental abuse and family dysfunction, may cause a variety of physical and psychological problems in adulthood. Group adversity experiences may include traumatic experiences that result in the bereavement of family members and/or acquaintances, damage to buildings, and even social system crises. These traumatic experiences may have profound effects on children, including posttraumatic stress disorder, and may cause cascade effects in their interactions with those around them. However, resilience may preserve children's health and encourage posttraumatic growth through adversity. Although it is beneficial to examine the developmental mechanisms of adversity from a variable-focused approach employing multivariate analysis, it is essential to consider a new approach, which pays attention to the person-focused approach of development that takes into account the uniqueness of human development by combining prospective and retrospective perspectives freely and frames adversity in life constructively.

yKeywordszAdversity, Cascade, Resilience, Posttraumatic growth, Variable-focused and person-focused approaches


◆Toshiaki, Shirai (Emeritus Professor of Osaka Kyoiku University). The Bottom-up Long Term Life-span Longitudinal Study's Significance and Method: Identity and Time Perspective Development from Adolescence to Middle Age. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 234–243.

The author examines Endo (2021)'s proposal that a person-based bottom-up long-term longitudinal study (BULS) can take a balance of researchers' interests with the pursuit of a person's well-being in comparison with a top-down longitudinal study based on researchers' interests. He insists, (1) BULS provides analysis based solely on intra-individual variability, indicating that every person has a way to develop; (2) BULS can be analyzed according to the timing of individual development, so it is possible to understand the reality of research objects inherent in individual context-dependent processes; (3) in BULS, a researcher can grasp the “uniqueness” of the life for each person, because of their long-term experiences shared with research participants. As the limitation of BULS, the influence of the historical times is confounded due to the long-term duration of investigation, but analyzing cohort effects can lead to clarification of the plasticity of personal development embedded in society.

yKeywordszAgent-oriented approach, Dynamic systems approach, Narrative, Life-span development


◆Ando, Juko (Faculty of Letters, Keio University). Genetic Dynamism Illustrated by Longitudinal Twin Studies. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 244–255.

The twin method is an approach within behavioral genetics that reveals both genetic and environmental effects on traits by comparing the behavioral similarities of monozygotic twins, who share the heredity and family environment, with those of dizygotic twins, who share half their genes but have the same family environment similarity as monozygotic twins. In classical twin studies, genetic factors are treated as latent variables rather than at the molecular level, and the focus is on variance rather than mean values. There is a vast accumulation of twin studies in the various fields of psychology that show significant and substantial genetic effects on all behaviors, but no trait has been found to be 100% genetic. It has been universally shown that most environmental factors are not shared within families. From a developmental psychology viewpoint, evidence for dynamic changes in genetic effects, such as the expression of new genetic factors (genetic innovation) and the increase in the heritability of intelligence with age, is of particular interest. Stability between ages in many traits, moreover, has generally been found to be mainly attributable to heredity. The specific examples of these findings will be introduced through a meta-analysis of large-scale cross-sectional twin studies and the results of our longitudinal twin projects, using the Cholesky decomposition model, latent growth model, cross-lagged model, and the analysis of differences in monozygotic twins.

yKeywordszBehavioral genetic, Nature and nurture, Twin method, Structural equation modeling, Discordant identical twins


◆Nishimura, Tomoko (Research Center for Child Mental Development, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine). Methods for Analyzing Longitudinal Data in Developmental Research: Growth Curve Model and Latent Class Growth Analysis. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 256–266.

I Research on child development considers it important to understand each child's developmental process as well as that of the entire population. Therefore, child development scholars must be proficient in two methodologies—longitudinal research and longitudinal analysis—with the latter based on drawing developmental trajectories. This study focuses on describing the population's average developmental trajectory while capturing individual deviations from the average. To this end, this study introduces the growth curve model and latent class growth analysis, highlighting findings from the Hamamatsu Birth Cohort (HBC) Study. The growth curve model introduces the mixed-effects and latent class approaches using an example question of whether an individual's birth weight affects their expressive language development. Latent class growth analysis emphasizes the parallel-process approach, which processes multiple domains in parallel and the joint model, which can be used to examine links between the developmental trajectories of two outcomes.

yKeywordszGrowth curve model, Latent class growth analysis, Longitudinal data, Developmental trajectory, Cohort study


◆Usami, Satoshi (Graduate School of Education, University of Tokyo). Statistical Models for the Inference of Within-person Relations: A Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model and Its Interpretation. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 267–286.

Since Hamaker, Kuiper, and Grasman's (2015) critique, the random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), which includes stable trait factors as unobserved heterogeneity to reveal within-person processes, has been widely applied in psychology. However, although various longitudinal models that examine reciprocal relations exist in different contexts and disciplines, their conceptual and mathematical relations have not been well recognized, and scholars continue to discuss the issues of model comparison and model choice. This study provides an overview of the RI-CLPM and then introduces other longitudinal models to explain their relations as well as potential difficulties to infer within-person processes. It describes that stable trait factors with time-invariant impacts on observations are modeled separately from regression models, making this factor conceptually and mathematically different from common factors in many other models. We also highlight that the presumed uncorrelatedness between stable trait factors and within-person processes is the key to understanding the RI-CLPM and how it is mathematically related to dynamic panel models, which could be a useful candidate.

yKeywordszLongitudinal data, Within-person relation, Causal inference, Cross-lagged panel models, Structural equation modeling


◆Yamada, Tsuyoshi (Yokohama City University, School of International Liberal Arts). The Design and Analysis of Single-Case Experimental Designs. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 287–303.

Since the 1960s, researchers have widely used single-case experimental designs (SCEDs) as a standard method in applied behavior analysis, but this research method has rarely attracted the attention of scholars in other research fields. Recent years, however, have seen an increased interest in SCEDs in various research fields, including clinical psychology and developmental psychology, partly because of the demand for evidence-based practice. Therefore, this article provides a basic description of SCEDs and explains their fundamental properties as well as the characteristics and problems encountered in typical SCEDs often implemented in applied research. In addition, this study will explain the visual inspection and statistical methods for examining data obtained from SCEDs. It will also describe the standards for evaluating the quality of single-case experimental design studies, especially the criteria to satisfy “Meets WWC SCD Standards without Reservations” proposed by WWC standards version 4.1.

yKeywordszSingle-case experimental designs, Single-case experimental data, Statistical methods, D-CES (Design Comparable Effect Size), WWC for Single-Case Design Studies Standards 4.1


◆Nakamura, Tomoyasu (Faculty of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University), Sanefuji, Wakako (Faculty of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University) & Ohgami, Hidehiro (Professor Emeritus, Kyushu University). Developmental Trajectories of Social Cognitive Abilities in Early Childhood. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 304–313.

The importance of longitudinal studies in developmental psychology is widely recognized. Nevertheless, in Japan, they have not become the mainstream of developmental research due to the difficulty of conducting them. Therefore, we have been conducting a longitudinal study on the development of social cognition in early childhood by launching a project in collaboration with the local community. In this study, we discuss the typical developmental stages of joint attention and differences between typical development and autism spectrum disorder based on a longitudinal study of children from 8 to 18 months. Next, we explain the screening test for autism spectrum disorder, which was developed based on the characteristics of joint attention in children diagnosed with later autism spectrum disorders, and discuss its potential and shortcomings as a tool for early detection. Additionally, we introduce the project's efforts as a practical example of early support based on early detection. Finally, we discuss the significance and problems of longitudinal studies based on this project's findings.

yKeywordszLongitudinal studies, Autism spectrum disorder, Screening test, Developmental support, Item response theory


◆Seki, Ayumi (Faculty of Education, Hokkaido University). Assisting Reading Skills Using the Response to Instruction (RTI) Approach: Trend in Longitudinal Studies in the USA and Practices in Japan. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 314–324.

Response to instruction (RTI) is the prevention and remediation model through research-based, effective instructions, and increasingly intense interventions. In the USA, the Individuals with Disabilities in Education ActiIDEAjin 2004 allows school districts to implement RTI models for LD identification. In this paper, we reviewed the studies based on longitudinal data to reveal recent issues in the RTI model. We also introduce school-based practices and studies conducted in Japan. In the USA, where RTI intervention is closely linked to LD identification, the determination of non-responders and prediction of long-term outcomes are important topics for studies, and a substantial number of longitudinal studies have been conducted. On the other hand, in Japan, RTI intervention is emphasized as an “intervention without identification,” and research mainly focused on the effect of interventions. Although only a few studies have targeted Tier 3 intervention, both in the US and Japan, our study revealed consistent results with those in the USA. Further studies will be required to reveal how the remediation of word-reading skills relates to future reading comprehension.

yKeywordszResponse to instruction model, Longitudinal study, Learning disabilities, Reading skills


◆Moriguchi, Yusuke (Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University), Wang, Jue (Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University), Sakata, Chifumi (Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University/Japan Society for the Promotion of Science), Meng, Xianwei (Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University), Hagihara, Hiromichi (International Research Center for Neurointelligence (WPI-IRCN), The University of Tokyo/Japan Society for the Promotion of Science), Yamamoto, Nozomi (Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University) & Watanabe, Ryoichi (Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University/Japan Society for the Promotion of Science). Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies of Social Development During the COVID-19 Pandemic. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 325–331.

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly changed social conditions, with concerns about its impact on children's mental health and socioemotional development . However, only a few Japanese studies have offered a comparison of children's behaviors before and during the pandemic or analyzed longitudinal changes as the pandemic was taking place. Therefore, we present cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, conducted by the authors, that examined socioemotional behavior (among children 4 to 9 years old) and psychological distance to caregivers and others (among children 0 to 9 years old) at four time points: prepandemic (T0), April 2020 (T1), October 2020 (T2), and February 2021 (T3). According to the results of these studies, children's socioemotional behavior hardly changed at these four time points and that their psychological distance from caregivers and others was influenced by the pandemic. These findings were discussed considering the issues surrounding cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods.

yKeywordszLongitudinal study, Social development, Pandemic, Socioemotional behavior, Psychological distance


◆Fujisawa, Keiko K. (Faculty of Letters, Keio University; the Tokyo foundation for policy research), Fukai, Taiyo (Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba; the Tokyo foundation for policy research), Hiroi, Noriko (School of Medicine, Keio University, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Faculty of Creative Engineering) & Nakamuro, Makiko (Faculty of Policy Management, Keio University; the Tokyo foundation for policy research). An Association between Poverty, Health and Developmental Risks during Early Childhood with Subsequent Academic Performance. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 332–345.

Using a large scale of administrative records provided by a local government, this study showed that experiencing family financial difficulties before school entry, signaled by receiving public assistance, and a child's own risk on health/development evaluated at the time of the Health Checkup for 3-year-old children lowered academic performance. It was deduced that the negative association between past financial difficulties of families and academic performance was greater than that between children's health and developmental risks and academic performance. Furthermore, the longer the period of exposure to family financial difficulties is, the greater the impact is. Additionally, the absence of health checkups for 3-year-old children was negatively related to academic performance. It was discussed that information on administrative records related to the welfare, health, and education of all children aggregated across jurisdictions and clarifying the relationship between developmental risk factors and outcomes would be extremely important for the effective implementation of scientifically based outreach and push-type support.

yKeywordszPoverty, Administrative record, Economic disparity, Academic performance


◆Takahashi, Yusuke (Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University). Long- and Short-term Trajectories of Change in Depression and the Predictive Role of Personality Traits. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 346–355.

This study aimed to analyze long- and short-term longitudinal data sets (first wave N1,448 and 91, respectively) to identify profiles of change in depression during adolescence and adulthood using a group-based trajectory approach and investigate the extent to which two personality traits (Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Systems; BAS and BIS) measured at the first wave predicted these trajectories. Three distinct trajectories, low, moderate, and high depression, were identified via group-based trajectory modeling . Multinomial regression analysis revealed that the two personality traits contributed to the development of depression, with lower BAS and higher BIS sensitivity leading to greater levels of depression in both longitudinal data sets. These results indicate that there is heterogeneity in longitudinal profiles of change in depression and that personality traits are predictive of the patterns in the development of depression. These findings may facilitate the early identification of those at greater risk of following the higher-depression trajectory.

yKeywordszLongitudinal study, Group-based trajectory modeling, Depression, Personality traits


◆Kodama Watanabe, Manami (IdeaLab Inc.) & Sakakibara, Ryota (Faculty of Law, Economics and the Humanities, Kagoshima University). The Relationship between Mothers' Scolding and Negative Emotions and its Moderators: A Four-week Longitudinal Study Using the Experience Sampling Method. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 356–365.

This study examined the relationship between scolding and negative emotions among mothers and how abuse anxiety, marital satisfaction, and children's birth order moderate it. Ninety-nine mothers (53 primiparas and 46 multiparas) caring for 2- and 3-year-old children were surveyed. Participants were given Android phones with an experience sampling method application installed. They were asked to answer questions when notified daily between 10 pm and 12 pm for four weeks. The results indicated that scolding typically leads to higher levels of negative emotion; however, none of the interactions were significant. While it has been suggested that feeling negative emotions during parenting may facilitate the development of mothers' parenting skills, it may also facilitate mental illness. Thus, relieving negative emotions after scolding their children may help promote mothers' mental health.

yKeywordszMothers, Scolding, Negative emotions, Moderator, Experience sampling method


◆Hamada, Megumi (Nagoya University of Arts and Sciences), Ito, Hiroyuki (Ochanomizu University), Murayama, Yasuo (Kanazawa University), Takayanagi, Nobuya (Aichi University of Education), Myogan, Mitsunori (Chukyo University) & Tsujii, Masatsugu (Chukyo University). Stability of the Feelings of Gender Dysphoria in Elementary and Middle School Students: A Six-year Longitudinal Study. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 366–377.

A challenge in dealing with gender dysphoria in children is the mixture of stable and temporary fluctuations in the feelings of gender dysphoria during development. This study examines the absolute and relative stability and the patterns of change of the feelings of gender dysphoria using data from a six-year longitudinal survey across three cohorts. The participants consisted of 2,031 people (999 boys and 1,032 girls) from fourth to ninth grades who completed the feelings of gender dysphoria scale. As a consequence of examining the changes in mean values by grade as absolute stability, the scores of boys slightly decreased from fourth to ninth grade; however, almost no significant change was found for girls. Latent profile analysis revealed 11 patterns including 22.6% of students who increased the score only within 1–2 years. The correlation between each grade as relative stability resulted in a positive correlation between each grade for boys and girls. In addition, the correlation coefficient increased as the grade increased, indicating that relative stability increased. The correlation coefficient was higher for girls than boys.

yKeywordszThe feelings of gender dysphoria, Elementary and middle school students, Relative stability, Absolute stability


◆Deno, Minako (Graduate School of Human and Social Sciences, Musashino University), Okubo, Keisuke (The Center for Early Childhood Development, Education, and Policy Research, The University of Tokyo), Takizawa, Ryu (Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo) & Endo, Toshihiko (Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo). Longitudinal Association between Positive Reappraisal and Emotional Talk in Adolescence: 10-year Trajectory by Cohort Sequential Design. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 378–390.

This study investigated the development trajectory of positive reappraisal and the relationship between positive reappraisal and emotional talk with parents and peers by 5-wave annual cohort-sequential design in adolescence. The study recruited 294 adolescents in their fourth year of elementary school, first year of junior high school, and first year of high school during the first wave. In each cohort, positive reappraisal at the four and five waves was higher than that at the first and second waves. Using an 11-wave random intercepts cross-lagged panel model, the between-person results indicated a strong trait effect for the positive association between positive reappraisal and emotional talk with parents and peers. Furthermore, the within-person results showed a longitudinal association between positive reappraisal and emotional talk with peers. Therefore, emotional talk with parents and peers positively affected this reappraisal.

yKeywordszAdolescence, Positive reappraisal, Cognitive emotion regulation, Emotional talk


◆Yamamori, Koyo (Department for Elementary and Secondary Education Research, National Institute for Educational Policy Research), Kusanagi, Kunihiro (Faculty of Regional Development, Prefectural University of Hiroshima), Oouchi, Yoshihiro (Faculty of Social Work Studies, Josai International University) & Tokuoka, Masaru (School of Psychological Sciences, University of Human Environments). Class Size and Class-Size Change Co-occurring with School Transition Impact on the Academic Achievement of Standardized Score Trends: Fourth to Eighth Grade Japanese language, Social Studies, and Science. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 391–406.

Previous studies have not discussed the effect of class-size change that students experience accompanied by primary to secondary school transition. This study examined the impacts of the elementary school class size, the differences between class size and number of students in the same grade, and the transition to secondary school on norm-referenced standardized test score trends. We constructed the panel data of students' test scores in Japanese (n5,171), social studies (n4,109), and science (n4,994) from the fourth to eighth grades. Subsequently, we analyzed them using multilevel growth models. The results indicated that the small-class-size effect on fourth-grade scores in language, social studies, and science, and the interaction of enlarged class size and number of students in the same grade impacted decreasing trends of the scores in social studies and science. The underlying processes of these results remains unclear; however, without surveying teachers and students, this study analyzed five-year panel data covering the school transition period and introduced novel findings to the literature on class size.

yKeywordszClass size, School transition, Standardized test score trends, Panel data


◆Machi, Takeshi (Graduate School of Education, Shizuoka University), Tachibana, Haruna (Department for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, Nagoya University) & Nakaya, Motoyuki (Graduate School of Education and Human Development, Nagoya University). Effects of Achievement Goals on Reciprocal Teaching in the Classroom: Elementary Mathematics Group Learning. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 407–418.

In this study, the effects of promoting achievement goals on the processes and consequences of reciprocal teaching in the classroom (RTC) were investigated. The participants included 79 sixth graders who were engaged in mathematics group learning. Basic RTC (Machi & Nakaya, 2014) was adopted to enhance the participants' intellectual and social interaction. Their achievement goals were promoted through teachers' instructions in reduced/enlarged figure classrooms. While the teachers focused on the importance of understanding in the mastery goal-focused groups, they emphasized quick answers and correctness in the performance goal-focused groups. Quantitative and qualitative data analyses demonstrated that the mastery goal-focused groups demonstrated more understanding and engaged in process-oriented discourses in comparison to the performance-focused groups. Based on the results of the analyses, the important role of students' motivation in interactive learning based on RTC is discussed.

yKeywordszReciprocal teaching in classrooms, Achievement goals, Motivational intervention, Elementary mathematics group learning


◆Nakayama, Rumiko (Department of School Education, Nara University of Education). Narcissism and Parenting: Meta-analytic Review. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2022, Vol.33, No.4, 419–430.

Parenting factors are theoretically considered important environmental precursors of narcissism. Although three theoretical hypotheses (Horton et al., 2006) lead many empirical studies, few attempts have been made to aggregate empirical findings. This meta-analysis integrated research on the relationship between childhood parenting and narcissism following adolescence. Forty-three articles (47 studies) reporting statistics that could be replaced by r or r were collected. As there are various indicators/scales assessing narcissism and parenting, the indicators were first organized. Scales of narcissism were broadly divided into grandiosity and hypersensitivity, and scales of grandiosity were further divided into the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and others. The indicators of parenting were classified into five categories: warmth, monitoring, psychological control, spoiling/inconsistent, and rejection/indifference. The results indicate that correlations cannot be interpreted as evidence of a direct relationship between narcissism and parenting. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the indirect relationships, such as the combined effects, multiple effects of parenting indicators, or the transactional effects, on the characteristics of self-evaluation that children already possess.

yKeywordszNarcissism, Parenting, Meta-analysis